GodExamined.com

Every study is real and citation-linked (PubMed / DOI / journal). Grouped into ten evidence categories, from the "clean" test of distant prayer for strangers down to the secular analogs (distant-intention and loving-kindness). Graded honestly: positive null mixed discredited. The 11 studies from the first pass carry a gold left-border. 127 studies were added in this pass.

#	Study & year	Published in	Population / condition	N	Design	Key finding	Result	Gr
A · IN-ROOM / PROXIMAL PRAYER (someone prays over a person who is present) — small trials, mostly positive on soft endpoints plus one instrument-measured (STEPP); none can be double-blinded, so presence/touch/expectation are uncontrolled.
1	Brown — STEPP 2010	South Med J 103(9):864-869 · link	Rural Mozambique; hearing/vision loss	24	Instrumented pre/post, hands-on prayer; no control	Measured gains in hearing (p<0.003) & vision (p<0.02) — the only instrument-verified gain in the field in-room	positive	B★
2	Matthews 2000	South Med J 93(12):1177-1186 · link	Rheumatoid arthritis, class II/III	40	3-day in-person prayer+ed; 19 randomized to +distant	In-person prayer gave significant improvement at 1 yr; added distant prayer gave NO extra benefit	mixed	C
3	Boelens 2009	Int J Psychiatry Med 39(4):377-392 · link	Depression/anxiety outpatients (95% women)	~44	RCT, 6 weekly 1-hr person-to-person prayer vs control	Significant drop in depression & anxiety, more optimism (p<0.01), held at 1 mo; salivary cortisol null; small, unblinded	positive	B
4	Boelens 2012	Int J Psychiatry Med 43(1):85-98 · link	Depression/anxiety (2009 cohort)	44	Uncontrolled 1-yr follow-up	6-session prayer gains maintained at 1 year; no control arm at follow-up	positive	C
5	Jacobson 2026	Ann Fam Med 24(3):192-197 · link	Primary-care outpatients (83% Black), pain/anxiety	180	RCT: 5-min proximal prayer + laying-on-hands vs soft music	Anxiety fell (p=.001; GAD-7 at 2wk/6wk p=.04); pain fell (p<.001), gone by 6wk; 97% wanted it again	positive	B
B · DISTANT / INTERCESSORY PRAYER RCTs (strangers pray; the patient never knows) — the clean test of the supernatural claim. Early small trials mixed; every large rigorous trial NULL; two flagship positives are fraud/discredited.
6	Byrd 1988	South Med J 81(7):826-829 · link	Coronary care unit	393	RCT, double-blind	Better composite severity score (p<0.01); weakened by 26-variable multiple comparisons & post-hoc scoring	positive	B
7	Harris 1999	Arch Intern Med 159(19):2273-2278 · link	Coronary care unit	990	RCT, double-blind (Byrd replication)	~11% better weighted CCU score (p=.04); no effect on length of stay or unweighted score	mixed	B/C
8	Sicher & Targ 1998	West J Med 169(6):356-363 · link	Advanced AIDS	40	RCT, double-blind, distant healers	Discredited — endpoints switched & data mined post-unblinding after HAART cut deaths	discredited	C↓
9	Cha / Wirth / Lobo 2001	J Reprod Med 46(9):781-787 · link	Korean IVF women	219	RCT (claimed); no informed consent	"Doubled" pregnancy (50% vs 26%) — FRAUD: Wirth jailed, Lobo withdrew name, journal pulled it	fraud	F
10	Krucoff — MANTRA II 2005	Lancet 366(9481):211-217 · link	Cardiac catheterization / PCI	748	RCT, multi-centre, multi-faith prayer	No effect of distant prayer on primary composite outcome	null	A
11	Benson — STEP 2006	Am Heart J 151(4):934-942 · link	CABG bypass surgery (largest ever)	1,802	RCT, 3-arm, multi-centre	No benefit; group certain of prayer had MORE complications (59% vs 52%, p=.025)	null/adverse	A
12	Leibovici 2001	BMJ 323:1450-1451 · link	Bloodstream infection (records 1990-96)	3,393	RCT, double-blind, retroactive prayer	"Significant" shorter stay/fever for past events — a deliberate paradox about the method	method probe	⚠
13	Collipp 1969	Med Times 97(5):201-204 · link	Children with leukemia	18	Triple-blind, 15-mo follow-up	7/10 prayed-for alive vs 2/8 controls; N tiny, no adjustment	positive	C
14	Joyce & Welldon 1965	J Chronic Dis 18(4):367-377 · link	Chronic psychiatric/rheumatic outpatients	48	Double-blind RCT, 8-18 mo	No significant benefit; final tally marginally favored controls	null	C
15	O'Laoire 1997	Altern Ther Health Med 3(6):38-53 · link	Community volunteers; anxiety/depression/self-esteem	406	RCT, double-blind, distant prayer 12 wk	Subjects improved on all 11 measures but so did controls; the pray-ers improved most (self-selection)	mixed	C
16	Walker 1997	Altern Ther Health Med 3(6):79-86 · link	Alcohol abuse/dependence	40	Double-blind RCT, prayer + standard tx	No difference in alcohol use; those who knew they were prayed for used MORE	null	C
17	Aviles 2001	Mayo Clin Proc 76(12):1192-1198 · link	Coronary care unit	799	RCT, distant prayer ≥weekly ×26 wk	No effect on composite (death/arrest/rehosp/revasc/ED)	null	A
18	Palmer 2004	J Altern Complement Med 10(3):438-448 · link	Community adults, self-selected problem	86	RCT, daily distant prayer ×1 mo, blinded	No effect on primary outcomes; only marginal belief-interaction sub-effects	null	B
19	Tloczynski & Fritzsch 2002	Psychol Rep 91(3):731-741 · link	Undergraduates; anxiety/depression	8	Multiple-baseline across subjects	Ambiguous small changes; no reliable effect	mixed	C
20	Mathai & Bourne 2004	Australas Psychiatry 12(4):386-389 · link	Children with psychiatric disorders	33	Triple-blind RCT, distant prayer vs TAU	No additional benefit for prayer group	null	C
21	Krucoff — MANTRA pilot 2001	Am Heart J 142(5):760-769 · link	Unstable coronary syndromes / PCI	150	RCT feasibility pilot, 4 noetic therapies	No significant difference; ns trend, prayer arm lowest complications (ns)	mixed	B
22	Matthews, Conti & Sireci 2001	Altern Ther Health Med 7(5):42-52 · link	Hemodialysis / ESRD	95	2×3 factorial RCT (expectancy × prayer)	Prayer effect not distinguishable from expectancy; no main effect	null	C
23	Beutler 1988	BMJ 296(6635):1491-1494 · link	Essential hypertension (distant healing)	115	RCT: laying-hands vs distant vs control	BP fell in all 3; no difference distant vs control	null	B
24	Harkness & Ernst 2000	Am J Med 108(6):448-452 · link	Common skin warts (distant healing)	84	RCT, 6-wk distant healing, blinded	No effect on wart number/size (ns)	null	B
C · SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS & META-ANALYSES — the whole body pooled: converge on "no reliable effect of distant intercessory prayer"; broader prayer-health literature judged methodologically weak.
25	Astin, Harkness & Ernst 2000	Ann Intern Med 132(11):903-910 · link	Distant healing (prayer/TT/mental)	23 trials	Systematic review	57% (13/23) positive; "warrants further study" — predates STEP/MANTRA, includes discredited trials	mixed	B
26	Masters, Spielmans & Goodson 2006	Ann Behav Med 32(1):21-26 · link	Distant intercessory prayer	14	Meta-analysis	"No scientifically discernible effect for intercessory prayer"	null	A
27	Cochrane — Roberts 2009	Cochrane Database CD000368 · link	Intercessory prayer, any illness	10 / 7,646	Cochrane systematic review	"Evidence does not support a recommendation either for or against"	equivocal	A
28	Hodge 2007	Res Soc Work Pract 17(2):174-187 · link	Intercessory prayer as intervention	17	Meta-analysis	Small significant pooled effect (g=-0.171, p=.015); still fails APA established-treatment criteria	mixed	B
29	Andrade & Radhakrishnan 2009	Indian J Psychiatry 51(4):247-253 · link	Prayer/distant-prayer healing RCTs	~12	Critical narrative review	Trials show improvement, none, worsening, even "retroactive" effects; research "has led nowhere"	null	B
30	Ernst 2003	Wien Klin Wochenschr 115(7-8):241-245 · link	Distant-healing trials 2000-2002	17	Systematic review update	Majority of rigorous trials do NOT support distant healing; two suggest adverse effects	null	B
31	Jantos & Kiat 2007	Med J Aust 186(10 Suppl):S51-S53 · link	Prayer as health intervention	narrative	Narrative review	Some positive associations; prayer cannot be prescribed; non-definitive	mixed	C
32	Townsend 2002	South Med J 95(12):1429-1434 · link	Religion (incl IP) & health	9 RCT+25	Systematic review	Mostly favorable associations but no effect on e.g. alcohol abuse; methodology weak	mixed	B
33	Powell, Shahabi & Thoresen 2003	Am Psychol 58(1):36-52 · link	R/S & physical health, incl IP	9 hypotheses	Evidence-grading review	Attendance ~25% lower mortality (robust); IP lacks theory base & failed controlled trials — further IP funding not recommended	mixed	A
34	Chida, Steptoe & Powell 2009	Psychother Psychosom 78(2):81-90 · link	Religiosity & mortality	69+22	Meta-analysis of cohorts	Healthy: HR 0.82 (0.76-0.87); no effect in diseased (HR 0.98); not prayer-specific	positive	A
35	Crawford, Sparber & Jonas 2003	Altern Ther Health Med 9(3 Suppl):A96-104 · link	Hands-on & distant healing RCTs	90	Systematic quality review	70% clinical / 62% lab positive but low study quality — efficacy not confirmed	mixed	B
36	McCullough 2000	Health Psychol 19(3):211-222 · link	Religious involvement & mortality	42	Meta-analysis of cohorts	~29% greater survival odds (OR 1.29, 1.20-1.39); not prayer-specific	positive	A
37	Masters & Spielmans 2007	J Behav Med 30(4):329-338 · link	Prayer & health (distant IP + frequency)	RCT set	Meta-analysis + review	No discernible effect of distant IP; broader prayer-health literature weak	null	A
38	Radin, Schlitz & Baur 2015	Glob Adv Health Med 4(Suppl):67-71 · link	Distant-healing-intention reviews	umbrella	Narrative umbrella (proponent)	Some effects reach significance but "does not yet provide confidence in clinical efficacy"	mixed	C
39	Jarego 2023	J Relig Health 62(3):1780-1809 · link	Prayer for PAIN	6 RCT	SR + meta-analysis	Private prayer medium-large effect on pain (pooled SMD -2.63) — only 2 studies pooled, tentative	positive	B
40	Gonçalves 2015	Psychol Med 45(14):2937-2949 · link	R/S interventions in mental health	23 RCT	SR + meta-analysis	Reduced anxiety (p<0.001); depression benefit smaller/inconsistent; R/S broadly not prayer alone	positive	B
41	Roberts 1998 (Cochrane precursor)	Forsch Komplementarmed 5(Suppl 1):82-86 · link	Intercessory prayer adjunct	small set	SR + meta pooling	No effect on deaths (OR 0.64); fewer "intermediate/poor" cardiac outcomes (OR 0.49); no guidance	mixed	B
42	Anderson & Nunnelley 2016	Postgrad Med 128(7):635-641 · link	Private prayer & depression/anxiety	>300 arts	Narrative review	Several inverse associations + optimism, but inconsistent/confounded by reverse causation	mixed	C
43	Chin 2021	J Complement Integr Med 18(4) · link	Objective prayer experiments (EEG/fMRI/vitals)	8	Systematic review	Prayer slowed physiological functions in 2 of 3 vital-sign studies	mixed	C
D · PRAYER & THE BRAIN (neuroimaging / EEG of the person praying) — prayer reliably engages known attention / self / theory-of-mind networks. Real neural correlates, "no God spot" — says nothing about effects on others.
44	Newberg 2003	Percept Mot Skills 97(2):625-630 · link	Franciscan nuns, centering prayer	3	SPECT rest vs ~50-min prayer	↑ rCBF prefrontal/frontal/parietal; inverse prefrontal-parietal correlation	positive	C
45	Azari 2001	Eur J Neurosci 13(8):1649-1652 · link	Religious subjects reciting Psalm 23	12	PET rCBF, block conditions	Recitation activated right dlPFC / dorsomedial frontal / parietal circuit; cognitive, not limbic	positive	B
46	Beauregard & Paquette 2006	Neurosci Lett 405(3):186-190 · link	Carmelite nuns, mystical union	15	fMRI, mystical vs control	~12 loci (OFC, temporal, parietal, caudate, ACC, insula); "no single God spot"	positive	B
47	Newberg 2006 (glossolalia)	Psychiatry Res 148(1):67-71 · link	Pentecostals speaking in tongues	5	SPECT, glossolalia vs singing	↓ prefrontal & caudate, ↑ parietal & amygdala — reduced self-agency	positive	C
48	Beauregard & Paquette 2008	Neurosci Lett 444(1):1-4 · link	Carmelite nuns (EEG)	14	EEG power & coherence	↑ gamma (right temporal/parietal) & theta (frontal/central/parietal) in mystical state	positive	B
49	Schjoedt 2009	Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 4(2):199-207 · link	Christians: formal vs improvised prayer	20	fMRI	Improvised personal prayer engaged theory-of-mind network (mPFC, TPJ, precuneus) — person-processing	positive	B
50	Schjoedt 2011	Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 6(1):119-127 · link	Christians vs secular receiving "healer" prayer	36	fMRI, belief manipulation	Believing speaker had healing power deactivated frontal executive network; predicted felt presence of God	positive	A
51	Newberg 2015 (Islamic prayer)	J Physiol Paris 109(4-6):214-220 · link	Muslim practitioners, intense prayer	3	SPECT case series	↓ prefrontal/parietal, ↑ caudate/insula/thalamus — "surrender"	positive	C
52	Barcelona 2020	Int J Psychophysiol 155:9-15 · link	Elderly Catholic sisters (mean 80y)	33	EEG, pray vs rest counterbalanced	↑ occipital alpha vs rest; left-frontal (approach) asymmetry rose with age (p=.017)	positive	B
53	Doufesh 2014	J Altern Complement Med 20(7):558-562 · link	Muslim men, salat	30	EEG alpha + HRV	↑ relative alpha (occipital/parietal) with ↑ parasympathetic activity	positive	B
54	Doufesh 2012	Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 37(1):11-18 · link	Muslim men, Dhuha salat	9	Within-subject EEG	↑ alpha during prostration — parasympathetic/relaxation	positive	C
55	Doufesh 2016	Complement Ther Clin Pract 24:6-10 · link	Muslim subjects, recited vs mimed salat	20	Within-subject EEG gamma	↑ gamma during actual (recited) salat vs mimed — focused attention	positive	B
56	Yousefzadeh 2019	Basic Clin Neurosci 10(3):257-268 · link	10-s Islamic prostration (Sajdah)	5	Pilot pre/post prefrontal EEG	Altered prefrontal EEG, gender-divergent (beta/gamma down in women, gamma up in men)	mixed	C
E · PRAYER & PHYSIOLOGY (autonomic tone, breathing, BP, cortisol) — recited/paced prayer (rosary, salat) reliably shifts breathing & autonomic tone toward relaxation. A real bodily effect — on the person praying.
57	Bernardi 2001	BMJ 323(7327):1446-1449 · link	Healthy adults, rosary & yoga mantra	23	Controlled crossover, breathing/BP	Rosary slowed breathing to ~6/min, entrained 0.1 Hz baroreflex; baroreflex sensitivity 9.5→11.5 ms/mmHg (p<0.05)	positive	A
58	Anastasi & Newberg 2008	J Altern Complement Med 14(2):163-165 · link	Catholic students, rosary	30	Controlled, STAI anxiety	Rosary reduced state anxiety vs video control	positive	C
59	Doufesh 2013	J Phys Ther Sci 25(2):211-214 · link	Muslim subjects, salat	30	Within-subject HR & BP	HR lowest in prostration; BP fell after salat, more with actual (recited) than mime	positive	B
60	Ghazali 2024	World J Clin Cases 12(29):6275-6284 · link	Quran memorisers vs non-memorisers	32	Matched two-group HRV	Memorisation raised HRV; pages memorised ~ LF/HF (r=0.61, p<0.05)	mixed	B
61	Sobhani 2022	J Med Life 15(4):483-488 · link	Namaz practitioners, cortisol	83	Pre/post salivary cortisol, baseline-stratified	Prayer moved cortisol toward optimal (up if low, down if high); BDNF expression fell; IL-6 unchanged	mixed	B
62	Koenig 1998	Int J Psychiatry Med 28(2):189-213 · link	Adults ≥65, blood pressure	3,963	Prospective cohort, 3 BP waves	Attendance + daily prayer/Bible study: 40% lower odds of diastolic BP≥90 (OR 0.60, p<.0001)	positive	B
F · PRAYER & MENTAL HEALTH / WELLBEING — prayer TYPE (gratitude, adoration, meditative) predicts wellbeing more than frequency; frequency is often null or reverse-causal. Mostly correlational.
63	Denny 2011	Soc Sci Med 73(8):1194-1199 · link	European adults (ESS)	large	Instrumental-variable causal analysis	Higher prayer frequency causes fewer depressive symptoms (IV > OLS); single-instrument caveat	positive	B
64	Van Herreweghe 2019	PLoS One 14(7):e0218557 · link	Europeans 65+ (SHARE)	7,719	Longitudinal RE + FE models	Praying >1x/day ~ MORE depressive symptoms in RE; FE shows it's selection (distress drives prayer)	null	B
65	Poloma & Pendleton 1991	J Psychol Theol 19(1):71-83 · link	US adults, wellbeing	560	Cross-sectional, prayer types	Meditative prayer + prayer experience → higher wellbeing; frequency weak	mixed	B
66	Poloma & Pendleton 1989	Rev Relig Res 31(1):46-53 · link	US adults, quality of life	560	Cross-sectional research note	Meditative prayer & experience ~ existential wellbeing; frequency only weakly related	mixed	B
67	Maltby, Lewis & Day 1999	Br J Health Psychol 4(4):363-378 · link	UK adults, mental health	NR	Cross-sectional, mediation	Personal prayer frequency strongest religious predictor of better mental health	positive	B
68	Maltby, Lewis & Day 2008	Ment Health Relig Cult 11(1):119-129 · link	UK adults, mental health	NR	Cross-sectional, CBT framework	Ritual/meditative prayer & praying-with-others ~ better mental health; mediated by attitudes not frequency	mixed	C
69	Krause 2003	J Sci Study Relig 42(3):377-391 · link	US older adults	~1,500	Cross-sectional, stress-buffer models	Praying for OTHERS buffered financial-strain effect on health; praying for things did not	positive	B
70	Krause & Hayward 2013	J Relig Health 52(2):674-694 · link	US older adults	~658	Two-wave longitudinal	Trust-based prayer beliefs predicted rising life satisfaction; belief content, not frequency	positive	B
71	Ellison 2001	Soc Forces 80(1):215-249 · link	US adults (Detroit Area Study)	~1,139	Cross-sectional, SEM	Attendance ~ wellbeing; prayer frequency slight inverse with wellbeing (distress mobilizes prayer)	mixed	B
72	Bradshaw & Kent 2018	J Aging Health 30(5):667-691 · link	US older adults	~1,000	Two-wave longitudinal	Prayer frequency NO main effect on wellbeing change; benefit only with secure attachment to God	null	B
73	Meraviglia 2006	Oncol Nurs Forum 33(1):E1-E7 · link	Breast-cancer survivors	84	Cross-sectional correlational	Prayer ~ psychological wellbeing; meaning-in-life mediated cancer's impact	positive	C
74	Francis 2008	Ment Health Relig Cult 11(1):85-92 · link	N. Ireland pupils 16-18	2,306	Cross-sectional, EPQ-R	Higher prayer frequency ~ lower psychoticism; not related to neuroticism	mixed	B
75	Jeppsen 2015	Couns Values 60(2):164-185 · link	Praying adults, online	330	Cross-sectional, SEM mediation	Prayer's mental-health link ran through closeness to God; relational quality > frequency	mixed	C
76	Baesler 2011	South Commun J 76(3):191-209 · link	US adults	151	Cross-sectional, path analysis	Prayer frequency predicted spiritual health (closeness to God); not psychological wellbeing per se	positive	C
77	Wachholtz & Pargament 2008	J Behav Med 31(4):351-366 · link	Frequent migraine (chronic pain)	83	RCT, 4 arms (spiritual vs secular meditation)	Spiritual meditation: greater ↓ migraine frequency, ~2× pain tolerance vs all comparisons	positive	B
78	Miller 2012	Am J Psychiatry 169(1):89-94 · link	Adults at familial risk for depression	114	10-yr prospective cohort	High R/S importance ~ ~1/4 the depression recurrence risk; R/S importance, not prayer alone	positive	B
79	Li 2016	Ann Behav Med 50(6):876-884 · link	US women (Nurses' Health Study)	48,984	Prospective cohort, marginal structural models	Attendance ~29% lower depression (HR 0.71); private prayer NOT independently protective	positive	A
G · PRAYER & PHYSICAL HEALTH / SURVIVAL / RECOVERY (cohorts) — correlational. Real positive signals (HIV survival, fewer complications) but confounded; prayer is sometimes null (Contrada); negative religious coping predicts worse outcomes.
80	Koenig 1997	Int J Psychiatry Med 27(3):233-250 · link	Adults ≥65, IL-6	1,718	Cross-sectional biomarker	Frequent attenders ~half as likely IL-6>5 (OR 0.58); attendance, not prayer	positive	B
81	Contrada 2004	Health Psychol 23(3):227-238 · link	Cardiac surgery patients	142	Prospective cohort, pre-op	Religious beliefs → fewer complications; PRAYER explicitly NOT related; attendance → longer stays	null	B
82	Oman & Reed 1998	Am J Public Health 88(10):1469-1475 · link	Community elderly, mortality	1,931	5-yr prospective cohort	Attenders lower mortality (adj RH 0.76); attendance, not prayer	positive	B
83	Kremer & Ironson 2022	J Relig Health 61(5):4081-4095 · link	People with HIV, 17-yr survival	HIV cohort	Longitudinal 17-yr	Praying for KNOWN others ~2× survival; praying for self/unknown NOT protective — target mattered	positive	B
84	Ironson 2006	J Gen Intern Med 21(S5):S62-68 · link	People with HIV, CD4/viral load	100	4-yr longitudinal	Increased religiousness post-diagnosis → greater CD4 preservation; broad R/S	positive	B
85	Kremer 2015	AIDS Care 27(1):71-79 · link	People with HIV, CD4/viral load	177	4-yr longitudinal	Positive spiritual coping → undetectable viral load; CD4 declined 2.25× faster with negative coping	positive	B
86	Ironson & Ahmad 2024	J Relig Health 63(4):2910-2923 · link	Chronic illness, 6-yr survival	~1,900	Prospective cohort, Cox	Daily private prayer ~ better 6-yr survival (HR 1.48); reverse causation not excluded	positive	B
87	Ironson 2002	Ann Behav Med 24(1):34-48 · link	HIV/AIDS long-term survivors	279	Cross-sectional, S/R index	Long survivors higher on S/R; ~ less distress, more hope, lower cortisol	positive	B
88	Tarakeshwar 2006	J Palliat Med 9(3):646-657 · link	Advanced cancer (palliative)	170	Cross-sectional regression	Positive religious coping → better QoL; negative coping → worse QoL	mixed	B
89	Pérez 2011	J Behav Med 34(6):519-530 · link	Cancer patients	179	Cross-sectional path model	Thanksgiving prayer & prayer for others ~ fewer depressive symptoms; petitionary not protective	mixed	B
90	Ai 2002	The Gerontologist 42(1):70-81 · link	Cardiac surgery patients (pre-op)	246	Prospective, SEM	Private prayer independently predicted higher optimism	positive	B
91	Ai 2007 (J Health Psychol)	J Health Psychol 12(4):580-596 · link	Open-heart surgery patients	310	Prospective 3-wave, SEM mediation	Prayer coping → better post-op mental health, mediated by optimism (plus a stress path)	positive	B
92	Ai 2007 (PSPB)	Pers Soc Psychol Bull 33(6):867-882 · link	Cardiac surgery patients	309	Prospective, SEM	Positive religious coping → less post-op distress via social support & hope	positive	B
93	Ai 2009	J Behav Med 32(6):570-581 · link	CABG surgery patients	177	Prospective, national-database controls	Higher prayer frequency → fewer post-op complications (not shorter stay)	positive	B
94	Ai 2010	J Clin Psychol 66(10):1057-1075 · link	Open-heart surgery (IL-6)	NR	Longitudinal biomarker + SEM	Spiritual STRUGGLE raised IL-6 → more depression; hope buffered; prayer not directly protective	mixed	B
95	Pargament 2001	Arch Intern Med 161(15):1881-1885 · link	Medically ill hospitalized elderly	596	2-yr longitudinal, Cox mortality	Negative religious coping / spiritual struggle predicted ~19-28% HIGHER 2-yr mortality	mixed	A
96	Pargament 2004	J Health Psychol 9(6):713-730 · link	Medically ill hospitalized elderly	268	2-yr longitudinal RCOPE	Positive coping → improvements; negative coping → declines in mental/physical health	mixed	B
97	Bosworth 2003	Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 18(10):905-914 · link	Older adults treated for depression	114	Prospective, 6-mo follow-up	Positive religious coping predicted lower depression at 6 mo, independent of support	positive	B
98	Tix & Frazier 1998	J Consult Clin Psychol 66(2):411-422 · link	Kidney transplant patients + others	NR	Prospective, 3 & 12 mo	Religious coping predicted better adjustment over time; partly via perceived control	positive	B
99	Harris 2010	Int J Psychol Relig 20(1):26-38 · link	Adult trauma survivors	NR	Survey, prayer-function scale vs PTG	Prayer for calm/focus → higher post-traumatic growth (not for interpersonal trauma)	positive	C
H · PRAYER TYPES & RELATIONSHIP EXPERIMENTS — genuine randomized experiments: praying FOR a partner raises forgiveness, trust, commitment and cuts aggression/infidelity. Strong internal validity — the effect is on the pray-er's own attitudes & behavior.
100	Whittington & Scher 2010	Int J Psychol Relig 20(1):59-68 · link	Adults; wellbeing vs 6 prayer types	430	Cross-sectional survey	Adoration/thanksgiving/reception + all SWB; supplication/confession/obligation null-negative	mixed	B
101	Ladd & Spilka 2002	J Sci Study Relig 41(3):475-484 · link	Adults; structure of prayer	~700	Exploratory factor analysis	Prayer = inward/outward/upward (the type taxonomy)	positive	B
102	Ladd & Spilka 2006	J Sci Study Relig 45(2):233-251 · link	Adults; prayer-type validation	~950	CFA / validation	Inward/Outward/Upward scales replicated with acceptable reliability	positive	B
103	Laird 2004	Int J Psychol Relig 14(4):251-272 · link	Adults/patients; prayer types	~700	Multidim. Prayer Inventory validation	5 factors; thanksgiving/adoration ~ hope, supplication/confession ~ distress	positive	B
104	Lambert 2010	Psychol Sci 21(1):126-132 · link	Forgiveness (dating/friends)	4 studies	RCT: pray for partner vs control; blind coders	Praying for partner increased forgiveness, coded as less vengeful vs controls	positive	A
105	Fincham 2010	J Pers Soc Psychol 99(4):649-659 · link	Infidelity (dating young adults)	3 studies	RCT: pray for partner vs control	Partner-directed prayer reduced infidelity thoughts & measured extradyadic behavior	positive	A
106	Lambert 2009	Psychol Relig Spiritual 1(3):139-149 · link	Gratitude (undergrads)	multi	RCT: prayer vs non-prayer	Prayer increased gratitude vs controls; specific to prayer	positive	B
107	Bremner, Koole & Bushman 2011	Pers Soc Psychol Bull 37(6):830-837 · link	Anger/aggression after provocation	3 exp	RCT: pray for vs think about target	Prayer → less anger, less aggression, less hostile appraisal (large effects)	positive	A
108	Beach 2011	Psychol Relig Spiritual 3(3):201-216 · link	Married African American couples	~90 cpl	RCT 3-arm (+prayer module)	Prayer arm improved marital outcomes for wives; NS for husbands	mixed	B
109	Fincham & Beach 2014	J Fam Psychol 28(5):587-593 · link	Relationship commitment	multi	RCT: partner-focused prayer vs control	Partner-focused prayer increased the pray-er's commitment	positive	B
110	Lambert 2012	Psychol Relig Spiritual 4(1):1-9 · link	Trust in partner	multi	RCT: prayer vs positive-thoughts	Partner-focused prayer raised trust & observer-rated trustworthy behavior	positive	B
111	Lambert 2013	Pers Relatsh 20(1):184-197 · link	Cooperation / forgiveness	multi	RCT: partner-focused prayer vs control	Prayer shifted toward cooperation & forgiveness by transforming relationship goals	positive	B
112	Newman 2023	J Pers Soc Psychol 124(6):1299-1313 · link	Daily wellbeing vs prayer content	2 diary	Experience-sampling	Gratitude/adoration prayers → higher wellbeing; anxious/petitionary → lower	mixed	B
I · DISTANT INTENTION / DMILS (secular cousin of intercessory prayer) — contested field, no grade A. Small effects that shrink or vanish under skeptic-involved replication; treat as unproven.
113	Braud, Shafer & Andrews 1993	J Parapsychol 57(4):373-390 · link	Remote staring → receiver EDA	16	Sender stares at video, EDA blind	Higher EDA during remote-staring (~59% diff, p~.02)	positive	C
114	Schlitz & Braud 1997	Altern Ther Health Med 3(6):62-73 · link	DMILS — distant intention on EDA	~30	Review + meta (proponent)	Significant EDA variation during intention vs control	positive	C
115	Wiseman & Schlitz 1997	J Parapsychol 61(3):197-208 · link	Remote staring → EDA	32	Skeptic & proponent run identical trials	Schlitz's subjects sig, Wiseman's null — experimenter effect, no independent signal	mixed	C
116	Bengston & Krinsley 2000	J Sci Explor 14(3):353-364 · link	Healing intention on cancer in mice	~33	Healers treat mice ~1h/day	Treated tumors regressed — but some CONTROL mice also remitted, unblinded	positive	C
117	Standish 2003	Altern Ther Health Med 9(1):122-125 · link	Distant brain-to-brain fMRI	pilot	Partner stimulated, isolated partner scanned	Reported raised visual-cortex fMRI in non-stimulated partner (small pilot)	positive	C
118	Radin, Taft & Yount 2004	J Altern Complement Med 10(1):103-112 · link	Healing intention on cell growth + RNG	flasks	Blinded intention vs control	Equivocal/weak — no compelling replicated effect	mixed	C
119	Standish 2004	J Altern Complement Med 10(2):307-314 · link	Correlated EEG between isolated pairs	60	Simultaneous occipital EEG	Only 5/60 (8.3%) sig; replicated in 1 of 4 follow-ups	mixed	C
120	Schmidt 2004	Br J Psychol 95(2):235-247 · link	DMILS + remote-staring meta	51	Meta-analysis w/ quality weighting	DMILS d=.11 but best-7 d=.05 (ns); small, possibly artifactual	mixed	B
121	Achterberg 2005	J Altern Complement Med 11(6):965-971 · link	fMRI distant intentionality	11 prs	Randomized send vs rest, blinded	Sig fMRI activation during "send" (p<.001); tiny sample, unreplicated	positive	C
122	Richards 2005	J Altern Complement Med 11(6):955-963 · link	fMRI/EEG correlated brain signals	60	Attempted replication	Only 5/60 showed higher activation — weak partial replication	mixed	C
123	Schlitz, Wiseman, Watt & Radin 2006	Br J Psychol 97(3):313-322 · link	Distant intention on remote EDA	joint	Pre-planned skeptic-proponent replication	No overall effect; experimenter effect did NOT replicate	null	B
124	Radin 2008	Explore (NY) 4(4):235-243 · link	Compassionate intention on partner's autonomic	36 cpl	Double-blind, 10s epochs, isolated receiver	Receiver skin conductance rose during intention; larger for trained couples	positive	C
125	Roe, Sonnex & Roxburgh 2015	Explore (NY) 11(1):11-23 · link	Noncontact healing (humans + non-human)	~100	Two meta-analyses	Small sig positive effects (r~0.20); heterogeneity/quality caveats, proponent journal	mixed	C
J · LOVING-KINDNESS / COMPASSION MEDITATION (non-theistic analog: goodwill directed at others) — robust RCT evidence that directing goodwill at others boosts the practitioner's positive emotion & prosocial behavior. The best-controlled "prayer-like" evidence there is.
126	Fredrickson 2008	J Pers Soc Psychol 95(5):1045-1062 · link	Working adults; emotion/resources	139	RCT, LKM vs waitlist, 7-wk	LKM raised positive emotions → built resources → higher life satisfaction, fewer depressive symptoms	positive	B
127	Hutcherson 2008	Emotion 8(5):720-724 · link	Social connectedness toward strangers	~93	RCT lab, ~7-min LKM vs neutral	Brief LKM increased positivity & connection toward strangers	positive	B
128	Weng 2013	Psychol Sci 24(7):1171-1180 · link	Altruistic redistribution + fMRI	~56	RCT, 2-wk compassion vs reappraisal	Compassion training increased altruism to a wronged stranger; tracked neural changes	positive	B
129	Kok 2013	Psychol Sci 24(7):1123-1132 · link	Positive emotion, vagal tone	~65	RCT, 6-wk LKM vs waitlist	Upward spiral: positive emotions → rising vagal tone via social connection (robustness later challenged)	mixed	B
130	Klimecki 2013	Cereb Cortex 23(7):1552-1561 · link	Positive affect to others' distress + fMRI	~60	Controlled, compassion vs memory	Compassion training raised positive affect amid others' suffering; reward/affiliation regions	positive	B
131	Klimecki 2014	Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 9(6):873-879 · link	Affect + neural response to suffering	53	Controlled, empathy-then-compassion	Compassion reversed empathy's negative affect, shifted to reward regions	positive	B
132	Leiberg 2011	PLoS ONE 6(3):e17798 · link	Prosocial helping (Zurich game)	59	RCT active control, compassion vs memory	Helping toward strangers rose after compassion training (p=.04 one-sided)	positive	B
133	Condon 2013	Psychol Sci 24(10):2125-2127 · link	Real-world compassion (giving up seat)	51	RCT, 8-wk meditation vs waitlist, covert test	~50% of meditators gave up seat to a suffering stranger vs ~16% controls — objective behavior	positive	A
134	Jazaieri 2013	J Happiness Stud 14(4):1113-1126 · link	Compassion domains	100	RCT, 9-wk compassion training vs waitlist	Increased all 3 compassion domains; practice ~ compassion for others	positive	B
135	Wallmark 2013	Mindfulness 4(3):223-234 · link	Altruism, empathy, stress	42	RCT pilot, 8-wk LKM vs waitlist	Gains in self-compassion, lower stress; altruism only nonsig trend	mixed	B
136	Galante 2014	J Consult Clin Psychol 82(6):1101-1114 · link	Wellbeing/social outcomes	22 RCT	SR + meta of kindness-based meditation	Sig benefits for wellbeing, positive emotion, less depression, better social interaction	positive	A
137	Hofmann 2011	Clin Psychol Rev 31(7):1126-1132 · link	LKM & compassion meditation	narrative	Narrative/theoretical review	LKM/CM ~ more positive & less negative affect, reduced stress-immune response, enhanced empathy	positive	C
138	Kearney 2013	J Trauma Stress 26(4):426-434 · link	Veterans with PTSD	42	Uncontrolled open pilot, 12-wk LKM	Reduced PTSD & depression at follow-up, mediated by self-compassion	positive	C

Honesty notes. "Not prayer-specific" flags mark studies whose exposure is religious-service attendance or broad religiosity rather than prayer itself (e.g. #79 Li, #80 Koenig-IL6, #82 Oman & Reed, #34 Chida, #36 McCullough) — included for completeness, flagged so they are not miscounted as prayer evidence. Categories I (distant intention) and J (loving-kindness) are secular analogs, not prayer, included to show what the "focused intention toward others" paradigm yields under tight control. Grades reflect design quality + survival under scrutiny (A large/rigorous → F fraud). "NR" = sample size not recoverable from the open record; every citation was verified by journal + year + volume:pages via PubMed / DOI / PMC.

Prayer & Its Effects — 138 Studies, One Table